Passenger EVs are represented explicitly in the market model, while electric trucks, buses and vans are not modelled as separate flexible assets and are instead included exogenously in electricity demand profiles. Passenger EVs are connected through separate prosumer and street charging representations. Flexible EV fleets can optimise charging in response to model conditions and, where enabled, can provide vehicle-to-grid (V2G), while non-flexible fleets follow fixed charging profiles. Compared with the previous formulation, the updated implementation introduces a more granular fleet structure and corrects the battery-bypass issue in the earlier setup.
The implementation is parameterised through four main profile types as in TYNDP 2024 (minimum state of charge, charger availability, fixed charging profiles and driving profiles) and through a set of scalar parameters including fleet shares, battery size, charger ratios, charger capacities, vehicle efficiency and V2G participation. The purpose of the fleet split is to reduce the overestimation of flexibility that can arise when large EV fleets are pooled into a single optimised asset. In the detailed implementation, flexible fleets are further divided into commuter (who cannot charge during the day on weekdays) and non-commuter segments.
For replication, the assumptions are reported below, separated for model scope and fleet structure, annual vehicle assumptions, charging infrastructure assumptions, and survey-based flexibility and V2G settings.
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Prosumer charging share | 70 % |
| Street charging share | 30 % |
| Fixed charging share of total passenger EV fleet | Based on TSO survey |
| Flexible commuter share of total passenger EV fleet | Based on TSO survey |
| Flexible non-commuter share of total passenger EV fleet | Based on TSO survey |
| Split within flexible share | 50 % commuter / 50 % non-commuter |
Table 27: Structural shares of the fleet composition
Table 28 and Table 29 show the EV and charging station parameters:
| ELECTRIC VEHICLES PROPERTIES | 2030 | 2035 | 2040 | 2050 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Battery Capacity (kWh / EV) | 79 | 81 | 83 | 100 |
| Efficiency (Wh / km) | ETM | ETM | ETM | ETM |
| Transport Demand (km / EV) | ETM | ETM | ETM | ETM |
| Number of EVs (#) | ETM | ETM | ETM | ETM |
| Max Charge / Discharge Rate (kW / EV) | 7.4 | 7.4 | 7.4 | 7.4 |
| Street / Home split (%) | 30 / 70 | 30 / 70 | 30 / 70 | 30 / 70 |
Table 28: Electric vehicles properties
| CHARGING STATIONS PROPERTIES | Home | Street |
|---|---|---|
| Max Charge / Discharge Rate (kW / station) | 7.4 | 16 |
| Use of Station Charge (EUR / MWh) | 30 | 35 |
| Charge / Discharge Efficiency (%) | 94 | 94 |
| Station per EV (#) | 1 | 0.5 |
Table 29: Charging stations properties
These are the survey-based options for the share of passenger EVs that are optimised flexibly in the market model. The results of the survey are taken into account by country / TSO response (Table 30).
| Flexibility option | Flexible charging share | Fixed charging share |
|---|---|---|
| Business-as-usual | 15 % | 85 % |
| Users Oriented | 30 % | 70 % |
| Balanced | 50 % | 50 % |
| Market Driven | 70 % | 30 % |
| Default if no selection is made | 50 % | 50 % |
Table 30: Results of the passenger EV survey
V2G is applied only to the flexible subset of EVs, not to the total EV fleet. Separate trajectories are defined for prosumer / home and street charging. The results of the survey are taken into account by country / TSO response (see Table 31 and Table 32).
| V2G option | 2030 | 2035 | 2040 | 2050 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low | 0 % | 5 % | 10 % | 20 % |
| Medium | 15 % | 20 % | 25 % | 35 % |
| High | 30 % | 35 % | 40 % | 50 % |
Table 31: Prosumer / home charging V2G participation rate (% of flexible EVs)
| V2G option | 2030 | 2035 | 2040 | 2050 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low | 0 % | 1.5 % | 3 % | 5 % |
| Medium | 0 % | 3.5 % | 7 % | 15 % |
| High | 0 % | 5 % | 10 % | 20 % |
Table 32: Street charging V2G participation rate (% of flexible EVs)
These values are explicitly given in the survey results and are applied only to EVs that are already assigned to the flexible fleet.
Example for 2040 (illustrative values)
This example illustrates how the survey inputs provided by TSOs are used to derive the size of each EV fleet and the subset enabling V2G. Numbers are purely illustrative.
Assumptions
- Total number of passenger EVs in country X:
1,000,000 - Home (prosumer) / street charging split (centralised):
70 % / 30 % - Flexibility option selected by the TSO:
User Oriented → 30 % flexible, 70 % fixed - Split within the flexible fleet (centralised):
50 % commuter / 50 % non commuter - V2G option selected by the TSO:
- Home charging: Medium
- Street charging: Low
Step 1 – Home / Street split
- EVs with home (prosumer) charging:
0.7 × 1,000,000 = 700,000 - EVs with street charging:
0.3 × 1,000,000 = 300,000
Step 2 – Fixed vs. flexible fleets (survey-based)
- Home (prosumer)
- Fixed: 0.7 × 700,000 = 490,000
- Flexible: 0.3 × 700,000 = 210,000
- Street
- Fixed: 0.7 × 300,000 = 210,000
- Flexible: 0.3 × 300,000 = 90,000
Step 3 – Split of the flexible fleet (centralised assumption)
The flexible fleet is split equally into commuter and non commuter EVs.
- Home (prosumer)
- Flexible with commuter profile: 0.5 × 210,000 = 105,000
- Flexible without commuter profile: 0.5 × 210,000 = 105,000
- Street
- Flexible with commuter profile: 0.5 × 90,000 = 45,000
- Flexible without commuter profile: 0.5 × 90,000 = 45,000
At this stage, six fleets are defined (fixed and flexible, home and street, with and without commuter constraints). Transport demand and charging infrastructure assumptions follow the same split. For street charging, one charging station is assumed per two EVs.
Step 4 – V2G enabled EVs (survey-based)
V2G is applied only to the flexible fleets.
- For home charging, the TSO selected Medium V2G participation for 2040 → 25 % of flexible EVs
- For street charging, the TSO selected Low V2G participation for 2040 → 3 % of flexible EVs
Resulting V2G-capable EVs:
- Home, flexible with commuter: 0.25 × 105,000 = 26,250
- Home, flexible without commuter: 0.25 × 105,000 = 26,250
- Street, flexible with commuter: 0.03 × 45,000 = 1,350
- Street, flexible without commuter: 0.03 × 45,000 = 1,350
Fixed fleets do not provide V2G.
